Vedas and Upanishads - Dr. Sheela Daga - Upanishads
Upanishads
Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads are all included in the literature known as Vedic literature. The introduction of the Vedic Samhitas, i.e., the four Vedas, has been given in the previous pages. The Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishadic texts of each Veda are different and many. We know only the names of many of them, as only a few are available. Nowadays, only Upanishads are available in large numbers. These texts are explanations of the subjects of the Vedas. Brahmanas texts explain the ritual part of the Veda and the Upanishads – the knowledge part. In the Aranyaka texts, there is a discussion of the spiritual facts existing within the Yagyas. Their main subject is the knowledge of Prana and Pratikopasana. This division is according to tradition, but drawing a dividing line in these four types of texts is difficult. The fortieth chapter of the Yajurveda is called Ishopanishad. In Krishna Yajurveda Samhita, the prose section is part of the Brahmana text. Similarly, Brihadaranyaka, Aitareya, Taittiriya Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads can be considered different parts of the same book.
The word Upanishad is made by adding prefixes Upa and Ni, meaning near, to the verb root Sad – to sit. Thus Upa + Ni + Sad. It means the learning obtained by sitting near the Guru. Some people believe that the ultimate knowledge is explained in the Upanishads. The Upanishads are also known by the name Vedanta – the end of Veda, being the last part of the Veda. The fortieth chapter of Shukla Yajurveda is the Isopanishad, and the last part of the Shvetasvatar Samhita of Krishna Yajurveda is called the Shvetashvatar Upanishad. Therefore, they are called both Vedas and Upanishads. Particular importance has been given to these Upanishads because of their theme/subjects. These Upanishads provide a proper introduction to the spiritual nature of Indian culture. Upanishads are also known as Brahmavidya because, in them, beginningless, endless and all-powerful Brahma, or God, is explained through various stories and examples.
There is a difference in the number of Upanishads. Somewhere their total number is stated to be 108 and elsewhere 220. But the main Upanishads are eleven and elsewhere twelve. Shankaracharya has written commentary on 10 of these Upanishads. In these Upanishads, the Brahman element is rendered, explained and presented. These Upanishads are not associated with any faith, sect or system.
Shah Jahan's son Dara Shikoh translated several Upanishads into Persian in the seventeenth century. The nineteenth-century German philosopher Schopenhauer and the great poet Goethe praised him in their texts. Schopenhauer wrote, “The Upanishads are the production of the highest human wisdom, and I consider them almost superhuman in conception. Studying the Upanishads has been a source of great inspiration and means of comfort to my soul... There is no other textual book in the whole world raising the same life as the Upanishads.” He further writes that he considers them “almost superhuman in conception”. Another Western scholar, Paul Deussen, in his book ‘Philosophy of the Upanishads’, states that the philosophical imagination of the Upanishads is unique to India, possibly incomparable in the whole world. Friedrich Schlegel has said that European philosophy flickers before the Sun of the Upanishad.
The principal Upanishads are Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka and Shvetashvatara. Some scholars also count the Kaushitaki Upanishad in them. The last two Upanishads differ among scholars. Only 11 eleven are counted as principal.
Ishopanishad
Ishopanishad is the fortieth chapter of Shukla Yajurveda. Due to its subject, it has been called an Upanishad. Its name is Isha Upanishad or Ishavasyopanishad, due to its beginning mantra Ishavasyamidam Sarvam. It is also called Mantropanishad. Regarding its first mantra, Mahatma Gandhi said that “if all the Upanishads and all the other scriptures happened all of a sudden to be reduced to ashes, and if only the first verse in the Ishopanishad were left in the memory of the Hindus, Hinduism would live forever.” The subject of this Upanishad is the combination of knowledge and deeds. Although the first line is sufficient to know how to live a life, this Upanishad continues to say that whatever a person must earn, he should make by following the right path. It is said that the Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is the interpretation of its first two mantras, which shows the importance of this Upanishad. Its name also appears as the first of all Upanishads. It has only 18 mantras and contains everything essential about the spirituality and practicality of life.
Īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yatkiṃca jagatyāṃ jagat |
Tena tyaktena bhuṃjīthā: mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasviddhanam || (yaju. 40.1, iśopaniṣad mantra 1)
God pervades all this vast universe, whether movable or not. Use properly whatever God has given you. Do not covet another's wealth. That is, live life in the spirit of renunciation.
Kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣecchatam samāḥ |
Evam tvayi nānyatheto'sti na karma lipyate nare ||2||
The second mantra says: 'Do work in this world and wish to live a hundred years. There is no other path apart from this. Do not attach yourself in the deeds. '
Further the rishi says -
Yastu sarvāṇi bhūtāni ātmanyevānupaśyati|
Sarvabhūteṣu cātmānaṃ tato na vicikitsate || (īśa. 6)
He who sees all the creatures in himself, his atma, that is, there is one atma in all. The one who knows this and sees his own atma in all the living beings, will without any doubt behave properly with everybody. In some edition the last word is Vijugupsate, hate. That one will not hate anyone.
Agne naya supathā rāye asmān (īśa. 18)
O Lord Jyotishwaroop, lead us on the best path to attain the divinity.
Kenopanishad
This Upanishad has two chapters. There are three sections in each chapter. It is also called Nachiketopakhyana because its story of Nachiketa and Yama explains the eternal, without beginning and end, one without second, Absolute resides in all beings. Therefore, it is appropriate that knowledge of that eternal, immortal Atma should be obtained, and salvation should be attained by doing excellent deeds. The Atma is just the reflection of the Absolute – ‘Chāyātapau Brahmavido Vadanti.’How accurate is the metaphor it describes –
Ātmānaṃ rathinaṃ viddhi śarīraṃ rathameva tu |
Buddhiṃ tu sārathiṃ viddhi manaḥ pragrahameva ca ||
Indriyāṇi hayānyāhuḥ viṣayāṃsteṣu gocarān |
Ātmendriyamano yuktaṃ bhoktetyāhurmanīṣiṇaḥ || (1.3.3,4)
The soul or Atma is considered a passenger, and the body is a chariot. Wisdom is its charioteer, and the mind is the reins in this chariot. The senses are the horses. All enjoyments are the paths of this chariot. When the soul/Atma is there, the mystics call it Bhokta, the enjoyer.
Another important thing that has been said is that it is rare to find listeners who can receive the knowledge and those who can give it – ‘Āścaryo vaktā kuśalo asya labdhā’. It has been told in this Upanishad that things that are useless to anyone should not be given in charity. It also explains how to receive guests, especially if some scholar comes; he should be properly respected.
Prashnopanishad
In the search for ultimate knowledge, Brahma Vidya, the six sages, came to Maharishi Pippalad and asked questions. Answers to these questions are given in this Upanishad. These questions are 1. From where do people originate? 2. Which God is the highest? 3. Arrival and departure of life in the body. 4. Regarding dreams, awakening, etc. 5. About Om. 6. Concerning the perfect man or the man who achieved all 16 skills (qualities). Imperishable Brahm is said to be the glory of this world.
Mundakopanishad
Mundakopanishad has three Mundakas. There are two sections in each. This Upanishad states that heaven can be attained through sacrificial rituals, but ultimately even those people must be born on Earth again. Therefore, the best solution is Brahm Gyan, the knowledge of self. In the mantra ‘Dvā suparṇā sayujā sakhāyā’, this is expressed. The word Vedanta is also for the first time in this Upanishad.
Mandukyopanishad
Mandukyopanishad is a very small Upanishad. It has only 12 sections or sentences, but the depth of the knowledge is incredible. In India, there is a saying signifying wisdom: ‘The whole ocean is filled into a small pot.’ Explanation of the word Om is the speciality of this Upanishad. It has a charming description of the soul or Atma.
Taittiriyopanishad
Taittiriyopanishad has three Prapathaks or chapters. They have been named Shikshaavalli, Brahmanandavalli and Bhriguvalli. This Upanishad is mainly known for its ethical teachings. These teachings are given to the graduates in the universities as a part of Shikshaavalli – ‘satyaṃ vada, dharmaṃ cara ... mātṛdevo bhava’ etc. In the rest of the Upanishad, the knowledge of the Absolute and the means of acquiring it is described.
Aitareyopanishad
One part of Aitareya Brahmana is called Aitareya Aranyak, and the other is Aitareya Upanishad. It has three chapters. The first chapter has two sections, with only one in the second and the third. Creation, the birth of living beings and the divine are its subjects. The four divisions of living beings, Andaja (born out of the egg), Udbhija (vegetation), Svedaja (insects etc.) and Jarayusa (mammals), are mentioned in this Upanishad.
Chandogyopanishad
Chandogyopanishad Upanishad is considered very authentic in terms of its antiquity, seriousness and rendering of Brahm Gyana, the ultimate knowledge. There is a beautiful discussion of how Devakiputra Krishna is given spiritual education and a description of the birth of the Sun. ‘Sarvam Khalu Idam Brahma’ and ‘Tattvamsi’ are both very famous sentences in the spiritual world, both from this Upanishad. In it, one can find the famous story of Ravik Rishi and King Janashruti, upon which Hazari Prasad Dwivedi’s renowned novel ‘Anamadas Ka Potha’ has been based. Spirituality has also been taught through many other stories. Practical measures for Self-realisation are given.
Brihadaranyakopanishad
As its name suggests, this Upanishad is a part of the book Brihadaranyaka. It is much larger than other Upanishads. It has six chapters. This Upanishad, also known as Vipulakaya, is considered the oldest authentic philosophical text. The profound teaching of enlightenment by Yajnavalkya to his two wives, Maitreyi and Katyayani, is in this Upanishad. In this story, the mutual love of humans has also been analysed very deeply. Yajnavalkya preaches enlightenment to his wife Maitreyi, saying – ‘Na vā are putrasya kāmāya putraḥ priyaḥ bhavati ātmanastu kāmāya putraḥ priyaḥ bhavati’ – When parents love their son; this love is not for the son but for themselves. Similarly, husband and other relationships should also be understood. The narratives of Raja Janaka and Yajnavalkya, the philosophical dialogues of Jabali and Shvetaketu Aruneya, and the story of Gargi and Yajnavalkya are part of this Upanishad. Philosophical interpretations of creation, policy and the other world are given in it.
Shvetashvataropanishad
The first of the six chapters of this Upanishad discusses Yoga, from the second to the fifth Shaiva Darshan, Sankhya Darshan and in the last chapter the principles of Gurubhakti, devotion to the teacher, are given. Many scholars do not count it among the principal Upanishads because of the description of the doctrines of Shaivism. While Adya Shankaracharya has cited it with the Upanishads, perhaps because of the seriousness of its subjects, he did not do commentary on it. In it, a detailed discussion of yoga can be found. The elements of devotion, Triguna nature - the essence of Sattva, Raja, Tama – perishable and imperishable Brahm etc. all these elements are taken from here to Bhagavad Gita. Here Shiva is described as the Supreme Being.
Kaushitaki Upanishad
Kaushitaki Upanishad has four chapters and is part of Kaushitaki Brahmana. In it, the importance of Prana and Pragya has been told, in that it is only through Pragya that one can attain Brahmaloka, after going through various worlds. It equalises Prana to the Absolute Brahm.