Vedas and Upanishads - Dr. Sheela Daga
A Brief Introduction
Writer - Dr. Sheela Daga, Vidyalakar
(Retired Pracharya Kanya Gurukul Postgraduate College, Dehradun)
This book is given free of cost!
For donations kindly use UPI - vishwaguru@kotak
Introduction
When people visiting me discovered that I have worked on the Vedas, many were eager to know about them. Even many educated people do not know anything about the Vedas. Also, in current translations, many things still need to be corrected. For the last several years, I have thought that a small book should be prepared in which a brief introduction to the Vedas would be given, so that the reader can quickly get a general introduction to the Vedas and Upanishads. It took a little time. When I decided to write it, a book by Yogi Sri Aurobindo, 'Basis of Indian Culture', came into my hands. What an ordinary reader or writer says on a subject is less important than the statement of a revolutionary, well-known, settled, respectable thinker and profound scholar. His views are considered authentic and unanimous.
Sri Aurobindo discussed two Western writers in his book, William Archer and John Woodruff. Archer, in his book, argued that all Indian literature – Vedas, Upanishads, philosophy, epics, sculpture, paintings etc. are 'beastly' writings. In his writings, Woodruff intended to reveal the importance of Indian civilisation and culture. While doing this, Woodruff wrote that it would be a great misfortune for the whole world if these writings were destroyed, as there is a massive crisis in today's human civilisation. Their disappearance would increase the disasters of the world. There don't need to be any defects or shortcomings in culture. Still, it is wrong to prove someone inferior by counting only those deficiencies to elevate oneself and degrade others.
By reading books of many Western writers such as William Archer, and Indian authors who are mental slaves of Western culture, and seeing the plight of Indian society today, many people are not ready to believe that there was anything good in ancient India. The argument is made that human life goes from the bottom to the top, not from good to evil. If we think seriously and try to understand, it will be seen that in the context of India, it is proved that civilisation was highly advanced but has now declined. This decline can also be seen in everyday life. Some people were living a good life at the beginning of their lives, but in old age, they suffer. It is also challenging for anyone to remain normal while suffering persecution and disrespect. In some families, someone from an older generation has been compassionate, intelligent, and civilised. Still, in the same family, someone from the next generation has a very evil nature, and is cruel and rude. This proves that there cannot be a single scale or criterion for human communities to be civilised and advanced.
The Indian psyche and thought did not attach importance to worldliness or to material progress. As a result, other castes set their feet here with their diplomatic tricks and forced the Indian society to live in the barest of all ways. When poverty increases, the ordinary person can no longer be patient; on the other side, greedy people are ready to do anything in their selfishness. The Indian psyche suffered from these ironies. It is in human nature to become more simple. But with life becoming more and more convenient and comfortable, it is easy to get lost. It is impossible for the ordinary person not to succumb to greed, especially the poor. There are many other reasons why Indian society has become so corrupt and stagnant today. Much effort and time are needed to push it from indolence towards hard work.
The most salient feature of Indian culture is its concept of spirituality, which is a product of Vedic literature. If all ancient Indian literature, including the Vedas, Upanishads, nine philosophies, philology, grammar, Ayurveda, musicology, mathematics, ethics, Kama shastra, economics, epics, Panchatantra, etc., which are found today, is evaluated without bias, it would show that there should be some basis for developing the talent of composing such high-quality poetic literature, philosophy, arts and texts, which are useful for the life of the society. It is no small thing that Yoga, which was developed in India, is getting international recognition.
Even today, there are two options before the Indian psyche: search for the God in the Himalayan shrines, or become a billionaire in America or elsewhere abroad, because spiritual ceremonies start from birth in India.
The urge to know our Indian culture is visible in today's new generation. This is a good sign; therefore, it has become necessary to make such a book where the general introduction of Vedas and Upanishads can be found.
Dr. Sheela Daga, Vidyalakar
+91 7060763868
Veda
Importance of Vedas
Ancient texts of India, including the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Smriti literature, philosophical texts, and ideological literature, all praise the Vedas. The Vedas are considered the origin of religion –'Vedo akhilo Dharmamoolam'. A person who does not believe in the Vedas is called nastika – 'Nastiko Veda Nindakah'. It is said in the Mahabharata that all the types of work in this world started from the Vedas. The priceless cultural treasure of our society is preserved in the Vedas and thousands of years of history. For Hindus, the Vedas are self-evident and final proof.
Vedic literature has inspired Indian masses according to the country's circumstances and time. Even today, any pundit, scholar, or other ordinary person who has to prove his point regarding the religious or social tradition, says “it is said in the Vedas”. Austrian scholar Winternitz accepts the Vedas as a base for an introduction to the civilisation and culture of India and ancient human communities. One Western scholar said, “The Rigveda scripture of the Hindus is the world's oldest text.” In ‘The Bible in India’, Jacolliot states, “the Vedas are the only scriptures whose views are found in present science.” French scholar Voltaire said, “The Vedas were the most precious gift for which the West has ever been indebted to the East.”
Since the Vedas is one of the oldest available collection of texts in the world, its language is also the oldest. When acquainted with Sanskrit in the nineteenth century, Western scholars found an authentic means of knowing the history of the world, based on language. Readers should also know that Sanskrit has two parts. One is Vedic Sanskrit, and the second is Classical Sanskrit. There is a substantial variation in their grammar. Many words and verbs of Vedic Sanskrit are not found in the other. There are also differences in syntax. But still, the languages of Vedic Sanskrit are more like Classical Sanskrit than the languages of Europe and Asia. In fact, Western scholars have accepted Sanskrit as the elder sister of Indo-European languages; whereas the Indian tradition considers Sanskrit to be the mother of all languages. Due to the diversity of Vedic languages and subjects, they have special significance for scholars outside India.
According to Panini, Sanskrit linguist of ancient India, the word ‘Veda’ is created from the root of the verb ‘Vid’ and ending ‘Ghan’, giving meanings like knowledge, power, profit, thought, consciousness, narration and abode. Thus, it can be said that studying the Vedas gives all these benefits.
Many names of Vedas
The Vedas are also known by these names: Shruti, Samhita, Chhandas and Mantras. Shruti because, for many centuries, the Vedas were memorised only after listening to the mantras. It was only by the tradition of remembering that the Vedic mantras stayed safe. Several branches of the Vedas, known as Samhitas, came into existence in different Rishikuls, due to the difference in traditions of memorising them. Their number was many/vast, but today only a few Samhitas remain with us; all others were lost or destroyed under different circumstances. There is no significant difference between these Samhitas, except for the order of mantras or some minor changes in the mantras. Being composed in verses, the Vedas were also called Chhandas. The Vedas are also called Mantras because the verses of Vedas are called mantras.
The divinity of Vedas
The Vedas are considered divine knowledge according to the ancient Indian tradition. It is said that God gave this knowledge to the four sages, Rishis Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angira, at the beginning of creation. As a poet is a revolutionary, he is also a sage. God gives poetic talent at birth. Without talent, nobody can compose poetry, even if one wants to. One can do only rhymes. At the same time, it is also true that not all poet's works are profound and of the highest level. Some poems of a superior-level poet are also of a moderate level. We can see many examples of this in the compositions of poets considered the best today. The poems of Shri Rabindranath Tagore are an excellent example of this.
The Vedic mantras are poems derived from the genius of the ancient sage poets. Every poet or artist has certain perceptions at particular moments, creating serious ideological and philosophical works and various branches of knowledge. With the coordination of innate talent and ideology, they created such mantras, which became the basis of the development of Indian religion, philosophy, knowledge, science, art, culture, and literature and remain today. Due to these characteristics of the Vedas, they are considered to be divine knowledge. But it seems that due to the natural development of the language, Vedic Sanskrit was left behind so much so that, although mantras were used in Indian public life, understanding of their meaning gradually disappeared. Till now, the reading of Vedas has been limited to the pronunciation of mantras only. It is to be noted here that particular emphasis has been laid on the pure pronunciation of Veda mantras. It is said in the Panini Shiksha Granth, that if a single letter or vowel is uttered wrongly, the purpose of the mantra is not achieved. This can also destroy the practitioner. As this mantra warns: “Mantro hīnaḥ svarato varṇato vā mithyāprayukto na tamarthamāha. Sa vāgvajro yajamānaṃ hinasti …” Don't use mantras for selfish or false intentions.
Some scholars have the opinion that the tradition of considering Vedas as divine started due to the inability to understand the meaning of mantras and because ancient texts praised the Vedas and called them authentic.
One thing about the Vedas makes one wonder how these thousands of Vedic mantras composed such a long time ago were kept safe by memorising them. We are not talking about a small amount of literature. It also shows the importance of the Vedas.
The Vedas have been much admired in ancient Indian texts. In the book titled ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’, it is said that “the study of the Vedas has three times the material benefits to the human than the donation of the Earth with all its wealth; he also attains the indestructible Akshaya Loka.” It is said in the Mahabharata that the Veda is the divine voice of the eternal God, through which all the deeds of this world are performed. Due to the importance of the Vedas not only in ancient Indian literature but in daily life, too, the attention of scholars in the modern era went towards understanding the language of the Vedas.
Vedanga
For a better understanding of Vedic Mantras, detailed literature was created. This literature is known as Vedanga. These are the six Vedangas – Shiksha, Kalpa, Nirukta, Vyakarana, Chhandas and Jyotish.
Shiksha
The method of pronouncing the Vedic Mantras, has been described in the texts on education. Vowels and consonants have been closely considered in every detail.
Kalpa
Kalpasutra texts describe the deeds and karmas stated in the Vedas in the correct order. There are four types of Sutras: Shrautasutra, Grihyasutra, Dharmasutra and Shulvasutra.
Respectively, in the Shrautsutras, the rituals of fire ceremonies are described. The Grihyasutras have a detailed description of special rituals like the Bhootyagya, Pitriya, etc. and formal ceremonies done by all like Upanayana, marriage, Shraddha and others. The Dharmasutras explain in detail the duties of the four varnas and ashrams, especially the king’s duties. In the Shulvasutras, the method of building the altar of ceremonies – yagya has been explained, which introduces the knowledge of the geometry of the ancient Aryans, wise people.
Nirukta
Nirukta adopts the linguistic approach to understanding the meaning of Vedic Mantras. Author Yaskacharya said, “The person who reads the Vedas without knowing the meaning only carries the weight like a pillar. One who studies the Vedas by understanding the meaning has all kinds of welfare.” The importance of the Vedas, their antiquity, and the difficulty in understanding them, contributed to the belief that Vedas are of divine origin.
Vyakaran
The form and meaning of the word have been considered in grammar. Everyone is familiar with the subject of grammar.
Chhand
The Vedas are chanted in meters only. The scripture on meters has great importance for the pronunciation of mantras. The meaning is lost if vowels are not correctly taken care of in the mantra. There are mainly seven meters commonly counted in the Vedas. These are based on the number of letters. Each meter has four more letters than the previous one. They are in the following order - Gayatri (24 letters), Ushnik (28), Anushtup (32), Brihati (36), Pankti (40), Trishtup (44), and Jagati (48). Letters refer to the short and long vowels A, I, U etc. or their length. Half letters are not counted. There are also many other differences within each of them, depending on the line of the stanza. The singing of mantras composed in these meters also differs.
Jyotish
Astrology - This scripture is essential to understand the meaning of the Vedas. At what time should the ceremonies be performed, and so on. By calculating the constellations, Lokmanya Tilak has determined the age of the Vedas with the help of this scripture.
Nature of Vedas
Many people are eager to know about the Vedas. The name of the Vedas is heard, but even highly educated people do not know about them. Many people have never even seen the Vedas. Those who quote Vedas as proof of something have never read the Vedas, or if they read, then they did it only in Hindi or English. There are only a few scholars who can read the Vedas through Vedic Sanskrit. Therefore, it is natural to be eager to know about the book called Veda and its structure. And indeed, it should be known.
It is commonly said that there are four Vedas – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. The word trilogy has been used in ancient literature for the Vedas. This makes one suspect whether the Vedas are three. Scholars differ in this matter. In some opinions, the trilogy refers to prose, verse and lyrical anthem. However, some modern scholars have a different view.
According to the language and words used, the subjects related to the society of that time. Atharva Veda was not counted with the other Vedas for a long time but was added later. One can see the book ‘Vedic Literature and Culture’ by famous Vedic scholar Acharya Baladeva Upadhyaya as proof of this view. However, many other scholars do not support this view because the Atharvaveda is mentioned in the Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads, and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali.
As said earlier, the Vedas had been kept safe for a very long time only by remembering mantras. Tradition suggests that later, Maharishi Veda Vyasa arranged the Veda mantras by dividing them into four parts. These books are called Samhita. There were many Samhitas of Vedas, but today only two or three can be found.
Structure of Vedas
In the Vedas, each Sukta has the name of a deity, which is praised, prayed to, and worshipped in this Sukta. It is like the title of a poem. Together with the name of the deity, the name of the rishi, or sage, can be seen on the top of the Sukta. This sage is considered to be its creator or seer. Sometimes, there is more than one deity of a Sukta, which means that one or more mantras of this Sukta describe those deities. Along with the deity and sage, the meter is also written. In the mantras, there are lines drawn above or below the letters. The line above the letters is vertical, and the one below is horizontal. These lines show the accents of the vowels. While reciting mantras, the letters must be read according to their accent. There are three accents: Udatta-elevated, Anudatta-low and Swarita-neutral. Udatta vowel is read with some higher pitch, Anudatta with lowering the pitch and Swarita is normal. The accents change the meaning of words in mantras. It is the same when we usually talk; the colour and rise of our voice show if we are praising, condemning, satirising or taunting someone.
Vedas
Rigveda
The mantras of the Rigveda are divided in two ways. They are called Ashtak and Mandala. The mantras of the Rigveda are divided into eight parts in the Ashtak. There are eight chapters each. Thus, the entire Rigveda is divided into sixty-four chapters. Each chapter is also divided into sections/subdivisions. The number of subdivisions is 2006. There is also the other way of division: the Rigveda is divided into ten Mandalas, books. Each book is divided into Anuwakas or chapters. There are many Suktas or Hymns in one Anuwaka. The number of these Suktas and the number of mantras in the Suktas differ. There are more than a hundred mantras in any Sukta, and then there are only three mantras in any other one. This second order is considered more scientific, historical and important. This can be understood by the example of a book of poetry. For instance, in a collection of poems, there are many small and large poems with different titles and many poems or stanzas in a poem, and their number is not fixed. In this Veda, there are Mandalas, Anuvakas, Suktas and mantras. The number of Suktas in this Veda is above one thousand, and the number of mantras is 10,552.
Yajurveda
– Yajurveda is found in two forms. Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. Shukla Yajurveda has verses - mantras, while Krishna Yajurveda has both prose and verses. Shukla Yajurveda has forty chapters. Its last chapter is called Isha Upanishad. Krishna Yajurveda is divided into seven Kandas, or books. It has 44 Prapatakas, chapters. These Prapatakas are also divided into 631 Anuwakas. Another Samhita of this Veda, which is not found complete, like the Rigveda, is divided into Ashtakas and chapters.
Samaveda
Most of the mantras in the Samaveda are of the Rigveda. Only a few verses are new; their number is below 100. It has two parts: Purva Archik and Uttar Archik, or the First and Second parts. There are six Prapatak, or chapters, in the Purvartik. There are two sections in each Prapataka. The total number of mantras in this is 650. Uttarachik has nine Prapatakas. Its number of mantras is 1,225.
Atharvaveda
There are 20 Kandas, books, 731 Suktas and 5,987 Mantras in the Atharvaveda. In this Veda, many mantras are taken from Rigveda. In the nineteenth and twentieth Kanda, all mantras belong to the Rigveda. The first seven Kandas of Atharvaveda comprise of small suktas. In subsequent Kandas, larger suktas can be found.
Topics of Vedas
Rigveda
The name Rigveda came from the root – ‘Rich’ or ‘Rik’ plus ‘Veda’. Richa means mantra. Joining these two words creates the word Rigveda. Rigveda is composed in verse. Because the verses have rhythm, they are called mantras. Except for the Yajurveda, the other three Vedas are in verse only. Richa also means to praise, a hymn. According to the meaning, the glories and prayers of the natural elements fire, air, water, Earth, Sun, etc., have been sung in the Rigveda. Many other deities have also been praised – Indra, Vishnu, Varuna, Rudra, Usha, Parjanya, Shraddha, and Soma. The gods are divided into three groups – those who live on Earth, Dyu and Antariksha. Among the deities of Earth, most mantras are dedicated to Agni, the god of fire. After Agni, Indra, a deity of Antariksha, has the most Suktas. The Sun is prominent among the Dyu deities. Praises have been sung to the Sun God with many names like Savita, Pusha, Mitra, Bhaga, etc.
From the description of Indra, it can be concluded that these are the descriptions of the Sun itself. Ushakal, dawn is described in 20 Suktas as Usha Devi from Dyuloka. These descriptions are lovely. The famous Western Vedic scholar Macdonell said, “Usha Devi is the most captivating fantasy of the Vedic period, and no more fascinating character is found in any world literature.” Yogi Arvind has also called Usha the “Innovative door to the brilliance of human consciousness”. Although the gods have been praised, prayed to and worshipped by many names, in many mantras of the Vedas, all have been considered powers of a single divine force. The Rigved mantra, 'Ekam Sad Vipra: Bahudha Vaddanti' (R 1.164.47) exclaims that Vipra (poet) calls the same supreme power with many names.
As the literature reflects society, it can be assumed that Vedic literature cannot be untouched by society.
In the Rigveda, there is much profound philosophical thinking in Nasadiya and other Suktas. The efforts for achieving the ultimate human potential can be seen in Dana – gift, Shraddha – faith, Gyana – knowledge, Vak – voice and other Suktas. Samvada – discussion, Akhyan – drama and other Suktas, are found to be the base of Classical Sanskrit literature. For example, there are Yama Yami Sukta, Pururava Urvashi Sukta, Sarma Sukta, The Dialogue of Rivers etc. Some Suktas are also on social subjects like Aksha Sukta, which is composed in condemnation of gambling addiction. Surya Sukta is about marriage. Similarly, through the prayers offered in the mantras, not only the relationship between the king and subjects, husband and wife, father and son, brother and sister and similar have been highlighted, but also the issue of friendship between man and woman. The mantras of Usha Devi also describe the woman’s best personality and social status.
The rishi of the 29th Sukta Veda of the tenth Mandala, raised and answered the following questions: How did this creation take place? When did it start? Who is its creator, and what is the nature of the creator? Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, in his vast book ‘Gita Rahasya’, called this Rigveda Sukta the best thinking of humanity. This Sukta also establishes the uniqueness of eternal power. Influenced by its theme, many foreign scholars have interpreted this verse.
Some scholars consider the tenth Mandala of the Rig Veda to be composed later. For this, these scholars also provide some evidence:
1. Language experts believe that the use of the letter L instead of R has increased as Sanskrit developed. For example, ‘salila’ replaced ‘sarira’ in the word used for water. This difference can be seen in the tenth Mandala.
2. In the first Mandala of the Rigveda, aa (long A) has been used in dual forms of Nominative, such as in Punarye Chakrah Pitaraa Yuvaanaa-4.33.2. This situation changed in the tenth Mandala, and ‘au’ has become used as in Classical Sanskrit, such as in Putraah Pitarau Avrnit Pusha - R.V. 10.85.14. Here both the mantras use the words Pitaraa and Pitarau for parents.
But even in terms of language, one cannot put all the Suktas of the tenth Mandala in the later period. These new usages appear only in the language of some Suktas, while the language of the rest of the Suktas is the same. The words Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra have been used in one mantra of Purusha Sukta of this Mandala. At the same time, these three words, Brahmin, Vaishya, and Shudra, have not been used anywhere else in the whole Rigveda. From these examples, one can infer that some mantras may have been added later in the tenth Mandala.
Yajurveda
The Yajurveda has a compilation of mantras used in yagyas. The first ten chapters have mantras associated with many types of yagyas, such as Darshapournamas, Agnishtom, Chaturmasya, Somayaga, Vajapeya, Ekaha, Rajasuya etc. In these mantras, prayers for the welfare of humans have been made to the gods Indra, Agni, Vayu and others. Chapters 11 to 18 describe the construction of the sacrificial altar for the sacrificial homage. In the 31st chapter, there is Purusha Sukta but with six mantras more than in the Rigveda. The Shivasankalpa Sukta, which gives an excellent introduction to human psychology, is part of the 34th chapter of this Veda. The final 40th chapter is called Isha or Ishavasya Upanishad. This Upanishad is considered the first and essential Upanishad. Famous educationalist Dr Sampurnanand, Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and Governor of Rajasthan, said that the Gita is the interpretation of its first two mantras. Gandhiji has kept its first mantra at par with all ancient Indian literature.
Samaveda
The way of singing mantras is described in the Samaveda. The meaning of Sama is a metrical hymn or song. Different chant types have different names. There is also a difference in the number of songs. The highest number is four, and their names are Vaye, Aranya, Uha, and Uhya. Somewhere these are the songs from the villages and songs from the forest. Indian musicology is based on these compositions.
Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda is exceptional in terms of subjects. The natural form of gods like Agni, Indra, Ushas etc. has ended. They are now the only deities to whom prayers have been offered to ward off diseases, evils and for the destruction of demons and enemies. Around one-fifth of the mantras of this Veda are from the Rigveda itself. The verses used are also from the Classical Sanskrit literature. The glory of Brahman's power is sung in this Veda, unlike in other Vedas. Lokmanya Tilak has considered that some words that appear in it, such as Taimata, Urugala, etc., came from Babylonia. Probably that is why this Veda was not given a place in the Vedas for a long time and why the word trilogy was used for the Vedas.This Veda is associated with society. According to Indian tradition, this Veda contains mantras that give desired fruits in this world. At the same time, the other three Vedas are instrumental in creating the afterlife and show how to elevate human consciousness. In the Atharvaveda, there are many serious philosophical Suktas, but there are also Suktas that teach how to protect human society and nature. In the opinion of some scholars, this Veda also contains the mantras of witchcraft. Science is also introduced in some of its Suktas. In one Sukta, one can find an introduction to making red dye. This Veda is considered the root of Ayurveda due to the many mantras related to health. Plants such as turmeric and others, which cure many diseases, and medicines that increase progeny and reproductivity are also found in this Veda. Knowledge of agriculture, trade, home construction etc., related to public life, is also gained from this Veda. Suktas about politics, nationality, love and marriage are also there. The mantra 'Mata Bhoomih Putro Aham Prthiviyaah' – i.e. ‘The Earth is my mother, and I am her son’ – belongs to this Veda. This is the mantra of Prithvi Sukta. Along with the idea of nationalism, this Sukta also gives the message of environmental protection. One other Sukta discusses very seriously the concept of time. The glory of Brahmacharya is also sung in this Veda.
Upanishads
Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads are all included in the literature known as Vedic literature. The introduction of the Vedic Samhitas, i.e., the four Vedas, has been given in the previous pages. The Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishadic texts of each Veda are different and many. We know only the names of many of them, as only a few are available. Nowadays, only Upanishads are available in large numbers. These texts are explanations of the subjects of the Vedas. Brahmanas texts explain the ritual part of the Veda and the Upanishads – the knowledge part. In the Aranyaka texts, there is a discussion of the spiritual facts existing within the Yagyas. Their main subject is the knowledge of Prana and Pratikopasana. This division is according to tradition, but drawing a dividing line in these four types of texts is difficult. The fortieth chapter of the Yajurveda is called Ishopanishad. In Krishna Yajurveda Samhita, the prose section is part of the Brahmana text. Similarly, Brihadaranyaka, Aitareya, Taittiriya Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads can be considered different parts of the same book.
The word Upanishad is made by adding prefixes Upa and Ni, meaning near, to the verb root Sad – to sit. Thus Upa + Ni + Sad. It means the learning obtained by sitting near the Guru. Some people believe that the ultimate knowledge is explained in the Upanishads. The Upanishads are also known by the name Vedanta – the end of Veda, being the last part of the Veda. The fortieth chapter of Shukla Yajurveda is the Isopanishad, and the last part of the Shvetasvatar Samhita of Krishna Yajurveda is called the Shvetashvatar Upanishad. Therefore, they are called both Vedas and Upanishads. Particular importance has been given to these Upanishads because of their theme/subjects. These Upanishads provide a proper introduction to the spiritual nature of Indian culture. Upanishads are also known as Brahmavidya because, in them, beginningless, endless and all-powerful Brahma, or God, is explained through various stories and examples.
There is a difference in the number of Upanishads. Somewhere their total number is stated to be 108 and elsewhere 220. But the main Upanishads are eleven and elsewhere twelve. Shankaracharya has written commentary on 10 of these Upanishads. In these Upanishads, the Brahman element is rendered, explained and presented. These Upanishads are not associated with any faith, sect or system.
Shah Jahan's son Dara Shikoh translated several Upanishads into Persian in the seventeenth century. The nineteenth-century German philosopher Schopenhauer and the great poet Goethe praised him in their texts. Schopenhauer wrote, “The Upanishads are the production of the highest human wisdom, and I consider them almost superhuman in conception. Studying the Upanishads has been a source of great inspiration and means of comfort to my soul... There is no other textual book in the whole world raising the same life as the Upanishads.” He further writes that he considers them “almost superhuman in conception”. Another Western scholar, Paul Deussen, in his book ‘Philosophy of the Upanishads’, states that the philosophical imagination of the Upanishads is unique to India, possibly incomparable in the whole world. Friedrich Schlegel has said that European philosophy flickers before the Sun of the Upanishad.
The principal Upanishads are Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka and Shvetashvatara. Some scholars also count the Kaushitaki Upanishad in them. The last two Upanishads differ among scholars. Only 11 eleven are counted as principal.
Ishopanishad
Ishopanishad is the fortieth chapter of Shukla Yajurveda. Due to its subject, it has been called an Upanishad. Its name is Isha Upanishad or Ishavasyopanishad, due to its beginning mantra Ishavasyamidam Sarvam. It is also called Mantropanishad. Regarding its first mantra, Mahatma Gandhi said that “if all the Upanishads and all the other scriptures happened all of a sudden to be reduced to ashes, and if only the first verse in the Ishopanishad were left in the memory of the Hindus, Hinduism would live forever.” The subject of this Upanishad is the combination of knowledge and deeds. Although the first line is sufficient to know how to live a life, this Upanishad continues to say that whatever a person must earn, he should make by following the right path. It is said that the Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is the interpretation of its first two mantras, which shows the importance of this Upanishad. Its name also appears as the first of all Upanishads. It has only 18 mantras and contains everything essential about the spirituality and practicality of life.
Īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yatkiṃca jagatyāṃ jagat |
Tena tyaktena bhuṃjīthā: mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasviddhanam || (yaju. 40.1, iśopaniṣad mantra 1)
God pervades all this vast universe, whether movable or not. Use properly whatever God has given you. Do not covet another's wealth. That is, live life in the spirit of renunciation.
Kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣecchatam samāḥ |
Evam tvayi nānyatheto'sti na karma lipyate nare ||2||
The second mantra says: 'Do work in this world and wish to live a hundred years. There is no other path apart from this. Do not attach yourself in the deeds. '
Further the rishi says -
Yastu sarvāṇi bhūtāni ātmanyevānupaśyati|
Sarvabhūteṣu cātmānaṃ tato na vicikitsate || (īśa. 6)
He who sees all the creatures in himself, his atma, that is, there is one atma in all. The one who knows this and sees his own atma in all the living beings, will without any doubt behave properly with everybody. In some edition the last word is Vijugupsate, hate. That one will not hate anyone.
Agne naya supathā rāye asmān (īśa. 18)
O Lord Jyotishwaroop, lead us on the best path to attain the divinity.
Kenopanishad
This Upanishad has two chapters. There are three sections in each chapter. It is also called Nachiketopakhyana because its story of Nachiketa and Yama explains the eternal, without beginning and end, one without second, Absolute resides in all beings. Therefore, it is appropriate that knowledge of that eternal, immortal Atma should be obtained, and salvation should be attained by doing excellent deeds. The Atma is just the reflection of the Absolute – ‘Chāyātapau Brahmavido Vadanti.’How accurate is the metaphor it describes –
Ātmānaṃ rathinaṃ viddhi śarīraṃ rathameva tu |
Buddhiṃ tu sārathiṃ viddhi manaḥ pragrahameva ca ||
Indriyāṇi hayānyāhuḥ viṣayāṃsteṣu gocarān |
Ātmendriyamano yuktaṃ bhoktetyāhurmanīṣiṇaḥ || (1.3.3,4)
The soul or Atma is considered a passenger, and the body is a chariot. Wisdom is its charioteer, and the mind is the reins in this chariot. The senses are the horses. All enjoyments are the paths of this chariot. When the soul/Atma is there, the mystics call it Bhokta, the enjoyer.
Another important thing that has been said is that it is rare to find listeners who can receive the knowledge and those who can give it – ‘Āścaryo vaktā kuśalo asya labdhā’. It has been told in this Upanishad that things that are useless to anyone should not be given in charity. It also explains how to receive guests, especially if some scholar comes; he should be properly respected.
Prashnopanishad
In the search for ultimate knowledge, Brahma Vidya, the six sages, came to Maharishi Pippalad and asked questions. Answers to these questions are given in this Upanishad. These questions are 1. From where do people originate? 2. Which God is the highest? 3. Arrival and departure of life in the body. 4. Regarding dreams, awakening, etc. 5. About Om. 6. Concerning the perfect man or the man who achieved all 16 skills (qualities). Imperishable Brahm is said to be the glory of this world.
Mundakopanishad
Mundakopanishad has three Mundakas. There are two sections in each. This Upanishad states that heaven can be attained through sacrificial rituals, but ultimately even those people must be born on Earth again. Therefore, the best solution is Brahm Gyan, the knowledge of self. In the mantra ‘Dvā suparṇā sayujā sakhāyā’, this is expressed. The word Vedanta is also for the first time in this Upanishad.
Mandukyopanishad
Mandukyopanishad is a very small Upanishad. It has only 12 sections or sentences, but the depth of the knowledge is incredible. In India, there is a saying signifying wisdom: ‘The whole ocean is filled into a small pot.’ Explanation of the word Om is the speciality of this Upanishad. It has a charming description of the soul or Atma.
Taittiriyopanishad
Taittiriyopanishad has three Prapathaks or chapters. They have been named Shikshaavalli, Brahmanandavalli and Bhriguvalli. This Upanishad is mainly known for its ethical teachings. These teachings are given to the graduates in the universities as a part of Shikshaavalli – ‘satyaṃ vada, dharmaṃ cara ... mātṛdevo bhava’ etc. In the rest of the Upanishad, the knowledge of the Absolute and the means of acquiring it is described.
Aitareyopanishad
One part of Aitareya Brahmana is called Aitareya Aranyak, and the other is Aitareya Upanishad. It has three chapters. The first chapter has two sections, with only one in the second and the third. Creation, the birth of living beings and the divine are its subjects. The four divisions of living beings, Andaja (born out of the egg), Udbhija (vegetation), Svedaja (insects etc.) and Jarayusa (mammals), are mentioned in this Upanishad.
Chandogyopanishad
Chandogyopanishad Upanishad is considered very authentic in terms of its antiquity, seriousness and rendering of Brahm Gyana, the ultimate knowledge. There is a beautiful discussion of how Devakiputra Krishna is given spiritual education and a description of the birth of the Sun. ‘Sarvam Khalu Idam Brahma’ and ‘Tattvamsi’ are both very famous sentences in the spiritual world, both from this Upanishad. In it, one can find the famous story of Ravik Rishi and King Janashruti, upon which Hazari Prasad Dwivedi’s renowned novel ‘Anamadas Ka Potha’ has been based. Spirituality has also been taught through many other stories. Practical measures for Self-realisation are given.
Brihadaranyakopanishad
As its name suggests, this Upanishad is a part of the book Brihadaranyaka. It is much larger than other Upanishads. It has six chapters. This Upanishad, also known as Vipulakaya, is considered the oldest authentic philosophical text. The profound teaching of enlightenment by Yajnavalkya to his two wives, Maitreyi and Katyayani, is in this Upanishad. In this story, the mutual love of humans has also been analysed very deeply. Yajnavalkya preaches enlightenment to his wife Maitreyi, saying – ‘Na vā are putrasya kāmāya putraḥ priyaḥ bhavati ātmanastu kāmāya putraḥ priyaḥ bhavati’ – When parents love their son; this love is not for the son but for themselves. Similarly, husband and other relationships should also be understood. The narratives of Raja Janaka and Yajnavalkya, the philosophical dialogues of Jabali and Shvetaketu Aruneya, and the story of Gargi and Yajnavalkya are part of this Upanishad. Philosophical interpretations of creation, policy and the other world are given in it.
Shvetashvataropanishad
The first of the six chapters of this Upanishad discusses Yoga, from the second to the fifth Shaiva Darshan, Sankhya Darshan and in the last chapter the principles of Gurubhakti, devotion to the teacher, are given. Many scholars do not count it among the principal Upanishads because of the description of the doctrines of Shaivism. While Adya Shankaracharya has cited it with the Upanishads, perhaps because of the seriousness of its subjects, he did not do commentary on it. In it, a detailed discussion of yoga can be found. The elements of devotion, Triguna nature - the essence of Sattva, Raja, Tama – perishable and imperishable Brahm etc. all these elements are taken from here to Bhagavad Gita. Here Shiva is described as the Supreme Being.
Kaushitaki Upanishad
Kaushitaki Upanishad has four chapters and is part of Kaushitaki Brahmana. In it, the importance of Prana and Pragya has been told, in that it is only through Pragya that one can attain Brahmaloka, after going through various worlds. It equalises Prana to the Absolute Brahm.
Ethics in Vedas and Upanishads
Unique poetry in the shape of the Vedas is available to us Indians. Due to a lack of understanding of the language and statements of some arrogant and jealous Western people who envy the Vedas, some Indian people even today continue to speak sarcastically about the Vedas. The language of the Vedas is very figurative. Rishis have repeatedly used metaphors to make their points easily accessible to the public. Most metaphors are directly taken from human life and related to human relationships. Which word has which meaning that the Vedic poet uses becomes understandable only after a detailed study of the Vedas. Vedic language is challenging to understand, and because of this, it is not appropriate to call the Vedas a collection of objectionable things by giving any meaning to the mantras. Another matter is that prayers for children, wealth, and against misfortune, destruction of hostility, destruction of disease, etc., have been offered in many mantras from the Vedas. Vedic society was practical. It developed an understanding of how to live life properly. The author has studied the Vedas deeply without any prejudice and understood the language of Vedas. She dared to introduce the Vedas on this basis.
Vedas and Upanishads sustain and uphold Indian culture. They teach human values. Surprisingly, this literature, composed during the beginnings of human civilisation, is as relevant today as it was during its creation. The impact of inclusive philosophy and knowledge of the human duties is visible in Indian philosophies. Examples of organisation, cooperation, positive thoughts, communion, sharing food, donating, helping, not gambling and all other human values can be seen.
Selected Mantras
Some mantras are written here to provide examples in order that readers can understand how the ideas and principles have been revealed in the Vedas for the betterment of human life.
First, we’ll take the Gayatri Mantra. This mantra is a prayer for the Sun-like power but also sound wisdom. This means that its creator understood that power alone would become destructive if knowledge were not used with power. This is the tenth mantra of the 62nd Sukta of the third Mandala of the Rigveda. This mantra is also found in the 36th chapter of the Yajurveda.
Ā no bhadrāḥ kratavo yantu viśvato ( ṛ. 1.89.1)
May all our actions be beneficial.
Devānāṃ bhadrā sumatirṛjūyatāṃ … devānāṃ sakhyamupasedimā vayam (1.89. 2)
To get the highest wisdom of the Gods, we offer them this oblation (into the sacrificial fire). May we get their friendship.
Bhadraṃ karṇebhiḥ śṛṇuyāma devā bhadraṃ paśyemākṣabhiryajatrāḥ |
Sthirairaṃgaistuṣṭuvāṃsastanūbhirvyaśemahi devahitaṃ yadāyuḥ || (ṛ.1.89.8)
Let us hear well with our ears, and see well with our eyes. Let us, with a healthy body, spend the time Gods gave us while praising them.
Tatsaviturvareṇyaṃ bhargo devasya dhīmahi| Dhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt| (ṛ. 3.62.10)
Let the Sun, divine Savita Dev, the creator of all, give us his radiance. He should inspire our intellect to follow the proper way.
In both, the Rigveda and Yajurveda, this mantra is similar. It is composed in Gayatri meter with 24 letters or syllables. It is not known when 'Bhur Bhuvah Svah' was added. There are seven letters in its first line, which, while singing, are completed with the full pronunciation of N in Vareniyam – Varenaiyam, and thus extended to eight.
na ṛte śrāntasya sakhyāya devāḥ| (ṛ.4.33.11)
Gods are friends of hardworking people.
svasti panthāmanucarema sūryācandramasāviva|
punardadatāghnatā jānatā saṃgamemahi||(ṛ.5.51.15)
May we continue on the proper path like Sun and Moon. Let us walk together without violence while distributing wealth and gaining knowledge.
In the tenth Mandala, there is a Dice or Kitava Sukta, in which the mental and social condition of a gambler is very well analysed.
Prāvepā mā bṛhato mādayanti. These dice make me very happy. Akṣasyāhamekaparasya hetoranuvratāmapa jāyāmarodham. Then I have left my wife because of them. But the next stage has come, dveṣṭi śvaśrūrapa jāyā ruṇaddhi na nāthito vindate marḍitāram, that my mother-in-law has become angry with me. My wife has also turned away from me. Now nobody gives me any money when I ask. Anye jāyāṃ parimṛśanti ......pitā mātā bhrātaramenamāhurna jānīmo nayatā baddhamenam. Other people started putting their hands on my wife. .. My parents, brothers etc. said that we do not know him, take him away. Jāyā tapyate kitavasya hīnā mātā putrasya .....ṛṇāvā ..dhanamicchamāno anyeṣāmastamupa naktameti. Gambler's wife and mother remain unhappy. Troubled by debt, he goes at night in other's houses to steal. Hence Akṣairmā dīvyaḥ kṛṣiṃ it kṛṣasva ( ṛ.10.34) one should not play with dices, i.e. do not gamble. Do farming, do hard work. This Sukta is a message for all addicts, Bhangedis, gamblers and bookmakers.
O hi vartante rathyeva cakrānyamanyamupatiṣṭhanti rāyaḥ | (ṛ. 10.117.5)
Money and wealth are going up and down like chariot wheels.
moghamannaṃ vindate apracetāḥ satyaṃ bravīmi vadha itsa tasya|
nāryamaṇaṃ puṣyati no sakhāyaṃ kevalādo bhavati kevalādī|| (ṛ. 10.117.6)
It is futile for an ignorant person to receive food because he neither gives it to the deity nor divides with the people around him. One who eats alone only accumulates sin.
Saṃgacchadhvaṃ saṃvadadhvaṃ saṃ vo manāṃsi jānatām| (ṛ. 10.191.2)
Let us all go together, speak with love, be of one mind, i.e., be united.
Ṛtasya pathā preta (yajurveda 7.45)
Keep walking on the path of truth.
Yajjāgrato dūramudaiti daivaṃ tadu suptasya tathaivaiti|
dūraṃgamaṃ jyotiṣāṃ jyotirekaṃ tanme manaḥ śivasaṃkalpamastu|| (yaju. 34.1)
Let my mind, the light of the lights, which goes far away while awake or in the dreams, always makes beneficial/proper decisions. If there is no mind, then no other sense works. Hence it is called Jyotirupa, the form of light. The six mantras from 1 to 6 of this 34th chapter of the Yajurveda pray for the stability of mind. These are excellent mantras to be included in daily prayers. Today most people are leading a stressful life. If one believes in prayers, then these mantras are ideal for the peace of mind.
Mitrasya cakṣuṣā samīkṣāmahe (yaju. 36.18)
Let us be friendly to all.
Adīnāḥ syāma śaradaḥ śatam (yaju. 36.24)
Until we live, we should not live poor and powerless.
Here ‘Sharadah Shatam’ expresses that the age of man is considered to be a hundred years. There is the poem in the ‘Gitanjali’, a book conferred with the Nobel Prize on the great poet Rabindranath Tagore, which reflects this sentiment. As it is in the Bangla language, some parts of its translation are presented –
This is my prayer to thee, my Lord---strike, strike at the root of penury in my heart.Give me the strength lightly to bear my joys and sorrows.
Give me the strength to make my love fruitful in service.
Give me the strength never to disown the poor or bend my knees before insolent might.
The rest can be seen in Gitanjali.
Śatahasta samāhara sahasrahasta saṃ kira (atha. 3.24.5)
Gather with hundreds of hands and share with thousands of hands.
Ya it tadviduste amṛtatvamānaśuḥ (atharva. 9.10.1)
Those who came to know the divine, they got Amritattva, the freedom.
Kṛtaṃ me dakṣiṇe haste jayo me savya āhitaḥ(atha.7.52.8)
The effort is in my right hand and success in my left.
Satyaṃ bṛhadṛtamugraṃ dīkṣā tapo brahma yajñaḥ pṛthivīṃ dhārayanti. (Atharva. 12.1.1)
Truth, discipline, valour, efficiency in work, hard work, self-knowledge and ceremonies mean respect for the best human beings, as the earth is stable by their association and charity.
Īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yatkiṃca jagatyāṃ jagat|
tena tyaktena bhuṃjīthā: mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasviddhanam || (yaju. 40.1, Īśopaniṣad mantra 1)
God pervades all this vast universe, whether movable or not. Use properly whatever God has given you. Do not covet another's wealth. That is live life in the spirit of renunciation.
Kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣecchataṃ samāḥ |
Evaṃ tvayi nānyathetoऽsti na karma lipyate nare || (Īśa. Mantra 2)
Do work in this world and wish to live a hundred years. There is no other path apart from this. Do not attach yourself in the deeds.
Further, the rishi says -
Yastu sarvāṇi bhūtāni ātmanyevānupaśyati|
Sarvabhūteṣu cātmānaṃ tato na vicikitsate || (īśa. 6)
He who sees all the creatures in himself, his Atma, that is, there is one Atma in all. The one who knows this and sees his own Atma in all the living beings, will without any doubt behave appropriately with everybody. In some edition, the last word is Vijugupsate, hate. That one will not hate anyone.
Agne naya supathā rāye asmān (īśa. 18)
O Lord Jyotishwaroop, lead us on the best path to attain the divinity.
Uttiṣṭhata jāgrata prāpya varānnibodhata kṣurasya dhārā niśitā duratyayā.....( kaṭha. 1.3.14)
O man, get up, wake up and realise oneself. Walking on this path is as difficult as walking on the edge of a knife.
Āsīno dūraṃ vrajati śayāno yāti sarvataḥ (kaṭha)
This mind goes far and wide while awakened and goes everywhere while sleeping.
Satyameva jayate nānṛtam (muṇḍaka upa)
Truth always wins, not lies.
Caraiveti caraiveti ....caranvai madhu vindati (aitareya upa.)
Always keep going, that is, be active. The one who is diligent and tries gets the honey.
Satyaṃ vada, dharmaṃ cara, svādhyāyānmā pramaditavyam........mātṛdevo bhava, pitṛdevo bhava, ācāryadevo bhava. (taittirīya upa.)
Speak the truth, walk on the path of duty, never be lazy about self-study. .... Respect all: mother, father and teacher.
Many such examples can be given, that teach human values and the art of living life.
Protection of the environment in the Vedas
As mentioned above, in the Vedas, mainly the natural elements, water, air, earth, space, fire, sun moon, rain, etc., have been praised by believing them to be divine powers of the same one ultimate power. The prayers are offered to achieve better living. When someone is praised, then the nature of that element and its use for humans in this world is also described. The Vedic sages left a message to pray to all of them for a happy and comfortable life. Just as we pray to the water God that there should not be a scarcity of water; that water should keep flowing in any form and should be available to us and for our welfare.
Śaṃ no devīrabhiṣṭaya āpo bhavantu pītaye. Śaṃ yorabhisravantu naḥ||
O, Thee (water) God, please continue to be beneficial to us by continually flowing to meet our needs.
Similarly, a sage praises fire
O fire god, just as a father always receives son without hindrance, be available to us. Stay close to us for our welfare.
Yasta āditya śikṣati vratena nainaṃ aṃho aśnotyantito na dūrāt.
The Sun teaches everyone to follow the rules. By keeping fasts, sins can harm you neither from near nor far. This statement inspires everyone to live with self-restraint.
The message has been given that if we want fuel like water and fire, then we also have to take measures to conserve them.
Śuddhāḥ naḥ āpaḥ tanve kṣarantu
Keep pure water flowing for us.
Yatte bhūmi vikhanāmi kṣipraṃ tadapi rohatu |
mā te marma vimṛgvarī mā te hṛdayamarpipam || (Atha. Pṛthvī sūkta)
O Earth, whatever we receive from you should quickly grow. O motherland, let us not strike your heart, let us not hurt you. In the Vedas, many more examples of this type can be found.
It is said in the Vedas to perform a yajna ceremony. The material used in the yajna is prepared from herbs and purifies the air. It also eliminates germs. Yagya teaches us to exchange, give and take. Through the fire of yajna, people give offerings to the gods of Earth, Space, Sun, Air, Water, etc. and pray that they, in return, keep fulfilling our needs and protect our welfare. When we dedicate something to someone, we learn about sacrifice, and our greed is controlled. Human desire has caused the most harm to our environment.
The yogi and revolutionary thinker, Sri Aurobindo, has convincingly proved in his writings that the Vedas are excellent poetry of Indian thought. If the subjects of Vedas and Upanishads are read without prejudice and by understanding the Vedic language, then there are many ways to live a better life. A person can live mentally and physically healthy by following these rules. May he keep nature friendly to himself. That is why their importance has been sung so much in ancient Indian literature. The well-known Western scholar of the Vedas, Max Müller, has said about the Rigveda –
Yāvatsthāsyanti girayaḥ saritaśca mahītale| Tavadṛgvedamahimā lokeṣu pracariṣyati||